Philosophy (Buchilo N.F.). History and philosophy of science The concept of culture in philosophy

21.02.2024 Love spells

N. F. Buchilo, A. N. Chumakov

Philosophy

Tutorial

* * *

2nd edition, revised and expanded

Reviewers:

G. A. Klyucharev, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor

Yu. M. Pavlov, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor

A. V. Katsura, Candidate of Philosophy

Preface

This publication, written in accordance with state educational standards in philosophy for higher education, aims to introduce undergraduates, graduate students, as well as a wide range of readers interested in philosophy, to modern philosophical issues and encourage them to develop their own philosophical position. The authors sought to show different approaches to solving the most important philosophical problems and set the task of helping students, based on knowledge of historical and philosophical material, gain the ability to think independently and independently judge complex and vital things, relying on the achievements of modern science and philosophy.

Philosophical problems are among the “eternal”. They were posed throughout the history of this subject, and each point of view introduced new shades of meaning into their understanding. Therefore, the study of philosophy involves not only mastering some ready-made results, but also clarifying how past thinkers went about obtaining them.

What people experienced in certain periods of life, what their way of thinking, beliefs and ideals were, what knowledge they had - all this was reflected in philosophical issues, in the very types of philosophizing. But changing philosophical approaches never required abandoning the achieved development. Alternative concepts of the past and present, mutually complementing each other, enrich the spiritual, moral and intellectual potential of humanity. Therefore, the study of philosophy inevitably involves turning to its history, to the concepts of the past.

At the same time, the study of philosophical topics presupposes knowledge of the corresponding concepts and categories, which present a certain complexity. The authors have taken pains to briefly define many of them, either in the text or in a short glossary at the end of the book. However, mastering the content of philosophical concepts is a necessary but not sufficient condition. In order to master philosophical culture, you need to learn the art of operating with its categories. And this, in turn, is due to a person’s general culture, his erudition, and familiarity with the history of world culture.

Philosophy has always played a special role in the formation and formation of a person’s worldview. Therefore, the problem of being has been one of the most important since ancient times. It would be unjustified to believe that this extremely broad abstract concept has no relation to the world of everyday life, to the anxieties and concerns of each of us. In fact, the problem of existence is to a large extent a question about human existence, about the meaning of his life. The main function of philosophy is the orientation of man in the world of nature and society. Every person at certain moments in his life faces the need to choose and thereby exercises his freedom. Philosophy is designed to help him make the right choice. To solve this problem, philosophy turns to the world of values and creates theories of values. It provides a scale for assessing phenomena, establishes a hierarchy of values and promotes their revaluation in a changing world.

Another fundamental problem of philosophy is the path of development of civilization, the direction of the cultural-historical process. The urgency of this topic today is associated with the danger of a global environmental crisis, with the persistence of armed conflicts on the planet, with the collapse of totalitarian ideologies, as well as with the processes of cultural integration. Finding alternative ways of social development is one of the most important tasks of philosophy.

The authors of the manual are aware of the complexity of the task facing them and do not claim absolute correctness and unconditional truth of the proposed solutions where they express their own position. Presenting their views and ideas on certain issues, they sought to compare them with other points of view, bearing in mind that in modern science, which has accumulated a huge amount of knowledge, and even more so in philosophy, the most established, proven material should be selected for the textbook . After all, even a scientist or philosopher usually uses the experience and achievements of other researchers in solving professional problems, adhering, as a rule, to the prevailing theories. This also applies to the authors of this manual, who, in formulating their own ideas on various topics, relied on authorities and well-known positions, although they admit that not all of them may ultimately stand the test of time. The main thing they strove for was to encourage students of philosophy to think about what had already been included in the treasury of philosophical thought, to reflect on what now remains relevant and urgently requires its solution and, having refracted it through their consciousness, to make the basis of their own worldview. There is no doubt that such an orientation of consciousness is an integral part of the worldview position of any educated person, especially those who have graduated from a higher educational institution.

Chapters 1, 2, 4, 5, 9 were written by Doctor of Philosophy, Professor A. N. Chumakov, chapters 3, 6, 7, 8 - Doctor of Philosophy, Professor N. F. Buchilo.

At the end of the book there is a Dictionary of Philosophical Terms.

Chapter 1. Philosophy: its subject and role in society

Philosophy at first glance

Almost every person starting to study philosophy for the first time, one way or another, already knows something or has at least heard about it, since even in everyday life people often come across this famous, attractively fascinating concept. There are also many who, thanks to the school curriculum or their curiosity, managed to get acquainted with textbooks and other literature on philosophy, and even with the works of great philosophers, whose influence left a deep mark on the cultural heritage of almost any nation.

2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: PER SE, 2001. - 447 p.

The textbook covers a wide range of the most important philosophical topics provided for by state educational programs. Its main goal is to introduce students of philosophy and a wide range of readers to modern philosophical issues, to show different approaches to solving certain issues of this discipline. The book will help, based on knowledge of historical and philosophical material, to develop one’s own philosophical position, the ability to independently judge and understand complex vital issues.

For students and teachers of higher educational institutions, teachers and students of high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, colleges, a wide range of readers interested in problems of philosophy.

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Content

Preface........................................................ ........................................... 3

Chapter 1. Philosophy: its subject and role in society ...................... 6

Philosophy at a first approximation.................................................... 6

What is philosophy?........................................................ ........................ 8

Pre-philosophy........................................................ ................................ 9

The main stages of the development of philosophy.................................... 9

Essence of the question. - Background. - Man and his worldview

The first historical forms of worldview................................... 13

Mythology. - Religion. - Historical forms of religious beliefs

Philosophy as a form of worldview.................................................... 21

The emergence of philosophy. - The essence of philosophical knowledge. - Subject of philosophy. - Structure of philosophical knowledge.

New areas of philosophical knowledge. - Metaphysics

On the “fundamental question of philosophy”................................................ 30

Materialists and idealists. - About the dangers of excessive schematization. - On the benefits of doubt in philosophy

The main functions of philosophy......................................................... .... 35

Worldview. - Epistemological. - Methodological. - Integrative. - Cultural. - Axiological. - Ethical

The place and role of philosophy in society.................................................... 40

Philosophy and science................................................... ............................... 41

What is science? - Why is philosophy not a science? - PhiloSophia is the “mother” of all sciences. - Science enriches philosophy. - From “old” to new philosophical mysteries. - Onscience as a form of worldview. - Stages of development of scientific and technological progress.

Philosophy and science in unity and difference. - General
worldview diagram

Philosophy in the modern world.................................................... ..52

Chapter 2. Ontology (The Doctrine of Being) ............................................. 56

§ 1. Philosophy about existence.................................................. .................... 58

§2. The concept of being................................................... ........................... 65

Etymology of the concept. - Dialectics of being and non-being.

Being as a starting point. - Diversity of forms of being

§ 3. Inanimate nature.................................................... ........................... 71

Origin and evolution of the Universe. - History of the Earth. - The emergence and evolution of man. - "Second Nature"

§4. Live nature................................................ ........................... 74

Origin of life. - About the possibility of life in EverythingLennoy - Philosophical optimism in solving difficult problems. - Dependence of living things on non-living things. - Characteristic features of living things. - Distribution area alive

§5. Human existence............................................................. ........................... 79

Philosophy about the soul. - The existence of individuality. - Impconscious. - The existence of individual consciousness. - Wouldsocial consciousness

§6. The problem of substance in philosophy................................... 86

The concept of substance. - Varieties of monism. - Substation as the ultimate foundation. - Matter. - Levelno organization of matter

§7. Movement and development........................................................ ................. 92

The relationship between movement and rest. -Types of movement.- Development. - Forms of movement

§8. Space and time................................................... 96

Space and time in the history of philosophy. - Differencenew approaches to understanding space and time. -Thosetheory of relativity. - Multidimensionality of space.

Social space. - Social time

§9. Consciousness................................................. ................................... 103

The nature of consciousness. - Identification of consciousness and soul.

Development of ideas about consciousness. - Irrational
ism. - Consciousness as a function of the brain. - Ma
terialist concept of consciousness. -Work as usual
the emergence of consciousness. - Language and consciousness. - Self-awareness

§ 10. Diversity and unity of the world.................................................. 116

Fundamental foundations of the unity of the world. - Arguments from science

Chapter 3. Epistemology (The study of knowledge) ................................. 122

§ 1. The problem of the object of knowledge in philosophy.................................... 123

Explanation. - Description. - Understanding. - Reflection

§ 2. Subject of knowledge.................................................... .................... 130

Sensory cognition. - Rational cognition. - Personal knowledge

§ 3. Ways to comprehend reality..................................".......... 142

Ordinary cognition. - Myth. - Artistic knowledge. - Religion. - Philosophy

§ 4. Science. Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.................................. 149

Basic forms of theoretical knowledge. - Methods of theoretical knowledge

§5. Knowledge and its forms.................................................. ............... 165

§ 6. Values and knowledge. Is it possible to be objective?
true knowledge?........................................................ ............................ 170

Chapter 4. Philosophy of Nature

(Interaction between nature and society) ......................................... 179

§ 1. The concept of nature.................................................... ....................... 179

Broad meaning. - Narrow meaning. - Specific context

§ 2. Interaction between nature and society.................................... 182

Pre-philosophical period. -Ancient philosophy. -Middle Ages and Renaissance. - New times and the formation of capitalism. - Realities XXV. Ecological crisis

§ 3. Geographical environment.................................................... ............... 190

Parameters of the geographical environment. - Social development and geographical environment. - Geographical schools.- The concept of “natural laws”. - Geographical determinism. - Social determinism. - Geopolitics. - Modern forms of geographical determinismlowness

§ 4. Social ecology.................................................. ................ 201

History of environmental disasters. - Origin of ecology. - Laws of social ecology. - Philosophical context of the environmental problem

§ 5. Noosphere.................................................... ........................................ 207

Humanity as a geological force. - Becomingnew reality. - V.I. Vernadsky about the noosphere. -Checatcher and noosphere. - Ecological imperative

Chapter 5. Philosophical anthropology (Doctrine of man)...214

§ 1. Man as a philosophical problem................................... 214

The origins of interest in man. - What is a person? - About the origin of man. - What can be said reliably? - Specifics of the philosophical understanding of man

§ 2. The place of man in the history of philosophy.................................... 223

Man in Eastern philosophy. - Western tradition

§ 3. Formation and “development of philosophical

Anthropology........................................................ ................................... 231

Origin of the term. - Integration of human knowledgecentury. - Unified science of man. - Essence of phylloSofian anthropology

§4. Biosocial nature of man.................................................... 237

Dualistic and monistic concepts of man. -Biologization concepts. - Sociologizingconcepts. - The essence of man

§ 5. The meaning of life and the purpose of man.................................. 245

Alone with myself. - To be or not to be? - Stages of death. - The purpose of man

Chapter 6. Praxeology .................................................................... 251

Concept of activity. - Attributes of activity. - On the role of activity in the formation and development of man. - Labor. - And fa. - Creativity: work and play - Regulation of human activity

Chapter 7. Social philosophy (Doctrine of society) ........ 291

§ 1. Basic paradigms of sociological

Thoughts................................................. ............................................... 292

O. Kont. - Marxism. - G. Spencer. - E. Durkheim.

M. Weber. - P.A. Sorokin. - Theory of factors

§ 2. The concept of society. Main subsystems

society. Hypotheses of the emergence of society......................... 299

An attempt at a scientific description of the origin of society. - Social production. - Economic subsystem. - Property. - Spiritual pro-

production. - Spiritual subsystem. - Branches of spiritual production. The science. - Information and communication. - Upbringing and education. - Structure of public consciousness. - Social psychology. - Ideology. - State of public consciousness. - Social subsystem. - Social communities and groups. - Ethnic communities. - Estates and classes. - Institutes. - Territorial groups. - Political subsystem of society

§ 3. The problem of the foundations of social life.

The concept of civilization................................................... 324

Civilization.- Types of civilizations

§ 4. Culture, its structure and social functions... 335

Structure of culture. - Cultural universals. - Internal structure of culture. - Cultural activities. - Cultural subjectivity. - Cultural communication. - Functions of culture

§ 5. Necessity and freedom

in the historical process................................................... 354

Historical necessity. - Subject of history. -

Liberty

Chapter 8. Axiology (Teaching of values) .................... 365

§ 1. The concept of value................................................... 365

The world of significance and the world of values

§2. Values and evaluation......................................................... 372

Subject of assessment. - Subject of assessment. - Basis of assessment

§3. Types of values................................................... .. 379

Subject values. -Spiritual values. - Personal and group values. - Hierarchy of values

Chapter 9. Philosophy and global problems

holistic world (Philosophy of global studies) .................. 391

§ 1. Globalization - a new topic in philosophy............. 391

The emergence of global problems. - Acceleration of social development. - Modern trends in world processes. - Awareness of global trends. - Technoop -thymists. - Techno-pessimists. - Roman Club

§ 2. The role of philosophy in solving global

Problems........................................................ ........................... 402

The relationship between science and philosophy. - Features of the philosophical approach

§ 3. The essence of global problems.

Origin of the concept............................................. 406

Problems at various levels. - Criteria for globality

§4. Principles of classification......................................... 410

§ 5. Main world problems.................................... 412

Demographic problem. - The problem of education. - Healthcare. - Food problem. - Uneven economic development. - Energy and raw materials resources. - The problem of war and peace

§ 6. General human guidelines.................................... 423

To global consciousness. - Consolidation of international forces. - Private and general interests

§7. Towards a renewed humanism................................... 429

Origins of the crisis. - Towards a new value system. - Universal human values. -Personality and society

Conclusion ................................................................... 436

Dictionary of philosophical terms.................................................. 438

Philosophy - Tutorial - Buchilo N.F., Chumakov A.N. - 2001

Buchilo N.F., Chumakov A.N.
Philosophy: Textbook. - M.: PER SE, 2001.-447 p.
ISBN 5-9292-0027-0
B 94

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Chapter 1. Philosophy: its subject and role in society
Philosophy as a first approximation - What is philosophy? - Pre-philosophy
The main stages of the development of philosophy
Essence of the question. - Background. - Man and his worldview
The first historical forms of worldview
Mythology. - Religion. - Historical forms of religious beliefs
Philosophy as a form of worldview
The emergence of philosophy. - The essence of philosophical knowledge. - Subject of philosophy. - Structure of philosophical knowledge. - New areas of philosophical knowledge. - Metaphysics
On the “fundamental question of philosophy” - Materialists and idealists. - About the dangers of excessive schematization. - On the benefits of doubt in philosophy
Basic functions of philosophy
Worldview. - Epistemological. - Methodological. - Integrative. - Cultural. - Axiological. - Ethical
The place and role of philosophy in society
Philosophy and science.
What is science? - Why is philosophy not a science? - Philosophy is the “mother” of all sciences. - Science enriches philosophy. - From “old” to new philosophical mysteries. - Science as a form of worldview. - Stages of development of scientific and technological progress. - Philosophy and science in unity and difference. - General scheme of worldview
Philosophy in the modern world

Chapter 2. Ontology (The Doctrine of Being)
§ 1. Philosophy about existence
The concept of ontology. - Category “being”. - The problem of being in the history of philosophy. - Synthesis of philosophical and scientific knowledge
§2. Concept of being
Etymology of the concept. - Dialectics of being and non-being. - Being as a starting point. - Diversity of forms of being
§ 3. Inanimate nature
Origin and evolution of the Universe. - History of the Earth. - The emergence and evolution of man. - "Second Nature"
§4. Live nature
Origin of life. - About the possibility of life in the Universe. - Philosophical optimism in solving difficult problems. - Dependence of living things on non-living things. - Characteristic features of living things. - Area of distribution of living things
§5. Human existence
Philosophy about the soul. - The existence of individuality. - Unconscious. - The existence of individual consciousness. - The existence of social consciousness
§6. The problem of substance in philosophy
The concept of substance. - Varieties of monism. - Substance as the ultimate basis. - Matter. - Levels of organization of matter
§7. Movement and development
The relationship between movement and rest. -Types of movement.- Development. - Forms of movement
§8. Space and time
Space and time in the history of philosophy. - Different approaches to understanding space and time. -Theory of relativity. - Multidimensionality of space. - Social space. - Social time
§9. Consciousness
The nature of consciousness. - Identification of consciousness and soul. - Development of ideas about consciousness. - Irrationalism. - Consciousness as a function of the brain. - Materialistic concept of consciousness. -Labor as a condition for the emergence of consciousness. - Language and consciousness. - Self-awareness
§10. Diversity and unity of the world
Fundamental foundations of the unity of the world. - Arguments from science

Chapter 3. Epistemology (Doctrine of knowledge)
§ 1. The problem of the object of knowledge in philosophy
Explanation. - Description. - Understanding. - Reflection
§ 2. Subject of knowledge
Sensory cognition. - Rational cognition. - Personal knowledge
§ 3. Ways to comprehend reality
Ordinary cognition. - Myth. - Artistic knowledge. - Religion. - Philosophy
§ 4. The science. Forms and methods of scientific knowledge
Basic forms of theoretical knowledge. - Methods of theoretical knowledge
§ 5. Knowledge and its forms
§ 6. Values and cognition. Is objective true knowledge possible?

Chapter 4. Philosophy of nature ()
§ 1. Nature concept
Broad meaning. - Narrow meaning. - Specific context
§ 2. Interaction between nature and society
Pre-philosophical period. -Ancient philosophy. - Middle Ages and Renaissance. - New times and the formation of capitalism. - Realities of the 20th century. Ecological crisis
§ 3. Geographical environment
Parameters of the geographical environment. - Social development and geographical environment. - Geographical schools. - The concept of “natural laws”. - Geographical determinism. - Social determinism. - Geopolitics. - Modern forms of geographical determinism
§ 4. Social ecology
History of environmental disasters. - Origin of ecology. - Laws of social ecology. - Philosophical context of the environmental problem
§ 5. Noosphere
Humanity as a geological force. - Formation of a new reality. - V.I. Vernadsky about the noosphere. -Man and the noosphere. - Ecological imperative

Chapter 5. Philosophical anthropology (Doctrine of Man)
§ 1. Man as a philosophical problem
The origins of interest in man. - What is a person? - About the origin of man. - What can be said reliably? - Specifics of the philosophical understanding of man
§ 2. The place of man in the history of philosophy
Man in Eastern philosophy. - Western tradition
§ 3. Formation and development of philosophical anthropology
Origin of the term. - Integration of knowledge about a person. - Unified science of man. - The essence of philosophical anthropology
§4. Biosocial nature of man
Dualistic and monistic concepts of man. - Biologization concepts. - Sociologizing concepts. - The essence of man
§ 5. The meaning of life and human purpose
Alone with myself. - To be or not to be? - Stages of death. - The purpose of man

Chapter 6. Praxeology
Concept of activity. - Attributes of activity. - On the role of activity in the formation and development of man. - Labor. - And fa. - Creativity: work and play - Regulation of human activity

Chapter 7. Social philosophy (Doctrine of Society)
§ 1. Basic paradigms of sociological thought
O. Kont. - Marxism. - G. Spencer. - E. Durkheim. - M. Weber. - P.A. Sorokin. - Theory of factors
§ 2. The concept of society. Basic subsystems of society. Hypotheses of the emergence of society
An attempt at a scientific description of the origin of society. - Social production. - Economic subsystem. - Property. - Spiritual production. - Spiritual subsystem. - Branches of spiritual production. The science. - Information and communication. - Upbringing and education. - Structure of public consciousness. - Social psychology. - Ideology. - State of public consciousness. - Social subsystem. - Social communities and groups. - Ethnic communities. - Estates and classes. - Institutes. - Territorial groups. - Political subsystem of society
§ 3. The problem of the foundations of social life. Concept of civilization
Civilization.- Types of civilizations
§ 4. Culture, its structure and social functions
Structure of culture. - Cultural universals. - Internal structure of culture. - Cultural activities. - Cultural subjectivity. - Cultural communication. - Functions of culture
§ 5. Necessity and freedom in the historical process
Historical necessity. - Subject of history. - Freedom

Chapter 8. Axiology (Teaching about values).
§ 1. Concept of value
The world of significance and the world of values
§2. Values and Valuation
Subject of assessment. - Subject of assessment. - Basis of assessment
§3. Types of values
Subject values. -Spiritual values. - Personal and group values. - Hierarchy of values

Chapter 9 Philosophy and global problems of an integral world (Philosophy of Global Studies)
§ 1. Globalization - a new theme in philosophy
The emergence of global problems. - Acceleration of social development. - Modern trends in world processes. - Awareness of global trends. - Technological optimizers. - Techno-pessimists. - Roman Club
§ 2. The role of philosophy in solving global problems
The relationship between science and philosophy. - Features of the philosophical approach
§ 3. The essence of global problems. Origin of the concept
Problems at various levels. - Criteria for globality
§4. Principles of classification
§ 5. Major world problems
Demographic problem. - The problem of education. - Healthcare. - Food problem. - Uneven economic development. - Energy and raw materials resources. - The problem of war and peace
§ 6. Universal landmarks
To global consciousness. - Consolidation of international forces. - Private and general interests
§7. Toward a renewed humanism
Origins of the crisis. - Towards a new value system. - Human values. -Personality and society

Conclusion
Dictionary of philosophical terms

Current page: 1 (book has 31 pages in total) [available reading passage: 21 pages]

N. F. Buchilo, A. N. Chumakov
Philosophy
Tutorial

* * *

2nd edition, revised and expanded

Reviewers:

G. A. Klyucharev, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor

Yu. M. Pavlov, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor

A. V. Katsura, Candidate of Philosophy

Preface

Chapters 1, 2, 4, 5, 9 were written by Doctor of Philosophy, Professor A. N. Chumakov, chapters 3, 6, 7, 8 - Doctor of Philosophy, Professor N. F. Buchilo.

At the end of the book there is a Dictionary of Philosophical Terms.

Chapter 1. Philosophy: its subject and role in society

Philosophy at first glance

And yet, it is not so easy to form a fairly clear idea on your own, without special training. What is philosophy, what does it do and what problems does it solve? Even among those who work professionally in the field of philosophy, there is no unity in the answers to the questions posed. Some consider philosophy to be a science, others - a game of the mind, others, disagreeing with this, give other definitions, focusing on various forms of people’s worldviews, the state of their soul, intellect, personal experience, etc. Someone sees a goal in it, someone is a means, a way of rational, irrational, or even intuitive comprehension by a person of himself and the world around him.

At the same time, everyone builds their own logic of reasoning depending on how they answer a number of fundamental questions: when and why did philosophy emerge? What is the nature of philosophical knowledge and is it possible, relying only on the human mind, to know the world? This partly contains the answer to the question why, over two and a half thousand years of its existence, philosophy has not given unambiguous, indisputable answers to many vitally important questions, has not found final, indisputable solutions to the so-called “eternal philosophical problems”, such as, for example, : what is a person? Is there a God? What is matter, consciousness? How do they relate to each other? How to understand truth and what are its criteria? What is the soul? What do they mean: freedom, equality, justice, hatred, love?

And yet, despite the absence of an established, generally accepted definition of philosophy, as well as a wide variety of points of view and approaches to understanding its subject, essence, goals and objectives, at the same time, it has invariably - at all times and in all countries - been and remains one of the most fundamental subjects, which is compulsory for study in all universities and other higher education institutions. Why? Where is the logic here? And to what has been said, let us also add that philosophy does not have a single, generally accepted language, indisputably established laws and a certain set of categories that are generally valid for any philosophical teachings. Moreover, in principle, it does not strive to build a unified system of knowledge and, ultimately, is not aimed at obtaining accurate results at all, as is, for example, characteristic of science.

Then why does philosophy continue to receive such unflagging attention throughout the centuries-old history of its existence? It may seem that we are dealing with an inexplicable paradox. But the apparent contradiction is overcome as they delve into the essence of this subject, delve into its specifics and begin to understand the role that philosophy plays in a person’s awareness of both himself and the world around him. Much can be clarified already in this introductory chapter, but a holistic vision of philosophy, a deeper and more complete understanding of the issues raised will come only as you become familiar with the contents of this book and immerse yourself in philosophical issues, in the mysterious and fascinating world of philosophy - philosophy.

What is philosophy?

It is best to start the content of any unknown word with its etymology, that is, by finding out when, how and why it arose. Concept "philosophy" comes from the Greek. "phileo" - I love and "sofia" - wisdom, so the original meaning of this term can be interpreted as love of wisdom, love of wisdom. This word was first used in VI V. BC e. famous ancient Greek thinker Pythagoras , wanting to make a fundamental distinction between the knowledge that was passed on in ready-made form (through myths, legends, traditions) from generation to generation, and that which could be obtained by oneself, relying on one’s own mind, through reasoning and critical understanding of reality.

Both Pythagoras and other ancient philosophers initially put a slightly different meaning into the concept of “philosophy”, in contrast to the one that was assigned to it in later times and essentially boiled down to the fact that philosophy is the “queen of all sciences.” They did not consider themselves sages and did not claim to have wisdom, for true wisdom, as it was common to think then, lay in myths, religion, and traditions that came from ancient times, from ancestors, from centuries. And the bearers of wisdom, centuries-tested knowledge, and ultimate truths were considered soothsayers, priests, elders - recognized and indisputable authorities, “true sages,” whose words were not subject to doubt and were unconditionally accepted on faith. The philosopher had only to be a seeker, a lover of wisdom, to strive for it, relying not on authorities, but on one’s own mind, using knowledge and experience obtained, including by others, in a creative way.

Pre-philosophy

Such an attitude towards the world and towards man himself did not arise immediately. Humanity has come a long and difficult way before its ability to withstand nature, create and increase means of subsistence has developed and increased, as a result of which sufficient experience and knowledge have accumulated, and the minds of people have become so strong that they have become self-sufficient in order to seek answers to numerous questions and in yourself.

The main stages of the development of philosophy

Essence of the question

To understand the essence of philosophy, as well as the reasons and conditions for its emergence, the conversation should begin with worldview person. Why? Because, as will be shown below, philosophy is one of the main forms of worldview, and precisely the form that is based on a rational principle. To talk about philosophy means to talk about a person’s worldview, and, consequently, about his essence and the history of his appearance on Earth. And here we are faced with complex, still poorly understood problems, for the origin of man is one of those greatest mysteries that people have always tried to unravel. But even today there are many unsolved problems in this area of knowledge, just as there is still no clear, generally accepted answer to the question: why, where, for what reasons, one can say so - for what purposes - did man appear?

Background

We will consider scientific, as well as other approaches to understanding this problem in detail later - in the relevant chapters of this book. Now let us note that from the point of view of modern scientific ideas regarding human history, there are still a number of issues regarding which scientists and specialists have a certain clarity. In particular, based on rich historical material, factual data obtained by archeology, and also taking into account the results obtained by methods of other sciences (for example, determining the age of rocks, fossils, etc.), we can say with a high degree of confidence that man is the result of the evolutionary development of life on our planet. Available knowledge allows us to conclude that the most ancient settlements of humanoid creatures that made elementary tools (homo habilis - skillful man ), appeared around 3–5 million. years ago.

Age homo erectus , according to archaeological and scientific data, is about 1.5 million. years. And only 40–60 thousand. years ago, a type of people emerged called homosapiens, which means – reasonable man . Since man acquired reason and finally formed as a social being, he, experts believe, has no longer undergone significant changes in his basic characteristics, i.e., he is not fundamentally different from modern people.

The emergence of the mind, in accordance with modern scientific ideas, correlates with that period of historical development of man when his brain, thanks to ever-increasing labor activity and verbal (speech) communication, developed to such an extent that complex abstractions became available to him. Man, thus, began to carry out, albeit still primitive, but already in the full sense of the word intellectual work, formulating concepts, expressing judgments and drawing conclusions.

Man and his worldview

It was from this time that we can speak with confidence about the formation of a sufficiently developed human worldview and about worldview people in general - as aggregates accumulated knowledge, practical skills, established values.

This worldview, formed on the basis of life experience and empirical knowledge, is called ordinary or empirical and appears initially as a kind of undivided, unsystematic set of human ideas about the world. It forms the basis of any worldview and performs an important regulatory function, guiding people in their everyday life and activities, predetermining behavior and a significant part of their actions.

If we give a more complete, expanded definition, then worldview –This is a system of views on the objective world and man’s place in it, on man’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the basic life positions of people, their beliefs, ideals, principles of knowledge and activity, and value guidelines determined by these views.

A worldview, defined in this way, is inherent only to a person and is associated with the presence of his formed consciousness and rational activity, when he not only acquires the ability to form concepts and judgments, make generalizations and formulate rules, but also begins to operate with ready-made knowledge in order to obtain new knowledge. Intelligence, which characterizes such human activity, his creative activity, becomes a powerful means of accelerating the evolution of both himself and society and ultimately acts as the main difference between people and animals.

With the advent of reason, a person begins to recognize himself as a thinking being, he forms and develops an idea of his own “I” and “NOT-SELF”, “WE” and “MUTES”. Thus, he gets to know himself and the reality around him, begins to distinguish between himself and other people, between himself and the external environment, discovering more and more new aspects of a previously unknown world. These kinds of views form the basis worldview , which is formed as the totality of a person’s views on himself and the reality around him. At the same time, a person distinguishes between what he likes and does not like, makes assessments, builds a system of priorities and acts accordingly, achieving certain goals.

In the worldview, therefore, the following basic functions performed by man are presented in a generalized form: cognitive, value, behavioral .

The most important thing is educational, since it includes all the questions that arouse a person’s interest, as well as the answers to which he comes in one way or another. Knowledge enriches and expands people's worldview, which, as society develops, becomes deeper and richer in content.

But the world is infinitely diverse and in constant change, and there are undoubtedly more questions that do not have satisfactory answers than those to which one and only one answer could be given, excluding all others. Hence, the worldview of each person, who selectively reacts to problems, questions, and answers, is always distinguished by its personal originality and, if only for this reason, is never similar to the worldview of other people.

It is always unique and inimitable also because in the worldview, along with intellectual inextricably linked by the beginning emotional And mental, which for each person act as absolutely specific, individual characteristics.

Intellectual, emotional and mental combined with by will give rise to beliefs -views actively accepted by people, corresponding to their entire mentality and life aspirations.

Another important element of any worldview is doubt, which protects him from dogmatism- such thinking when it becomes one-sided, uncritical, accepting this or that position as an immutable truth, unchangeable under all circumstances. The other extreme in relation to dogmatism is skepticism, in which doubt is absolutized, placed at the forefront and acts as the main principle of knowledge and perception of reality.

So, as can be seen from the above, a person’s worldview is a rather complex phenomenon in which it is customary to identify individual elements that make up its structure. The most important of them are attitude, worldview and worldview.

Attitude– this is a sensory perception of the surrounding world, when feelings and mood “color” the world, as it were, capturing its image through the prism of subjective, purely individual sensations. For example, light that may seem too bright for a sick person will be normal for a healthy person; The color gamut is perceived by a colorblind person completely differently than by someone with normal vision. This leads to different types of worldviews, such as optimistic, pessimistic, tragic, etc.

Worldview is a representation of the surrounding world in ideal images. The worldview can be adequate or inadequate, that is, it does not correspond to reality, when reality is distorted or there are illusions, fantasies, such as ideas about mermaids, goblin, centaurs, brownies and so on.

Worldview– cognitive and intellectual activity aimed at identifying the essence of both the person himself and the world around him, as well as understanding the interconnection of events and processes occurring in nature.

Attitude and, partly (in elementary forms), worldview are inherent not only to humans, but also to animals. But worldview is characteristic only of people.

The first historical forms of worldview

Various eras deepened knowledge and expanded man's horizons, opening up new horizons for his vision of both the world and himself in it. Thereby it increased, grew, enriched ordinary (empirical) worldview, on the basis of which, as if crystallizing from it, more and more complex structures were gradually formed, which ultimately led to the identification of individual forms, sometimes they say - historical types worldview.

The most important of them:

– RELIGION;

– PHILOSOPHY;

Historically, the first forms of worldview were myth And religion that preceded philosophy And science, which is quite consistent with the general logic of the evolutionary development of humanity. Thus, as skills, experience and basic knowledge accumulated, not only did the problem of transferring them from generation to generation arise, but the very worldview of primitive people became more and more complex. At a certain stage of its development, upon reaching a “critical mass” of accumulated knowledge, the laws of self-organization began to manifest themselves in it, as in any other fairly complex system.

The essence of this phenomenon can be better understood if we look at the example of the accumulation of books in a home library. When there are several of them, no systematization is required and it does not matter where they lie and in what relation to each other they are. When there are dozens of them, for more convenient and efficient use, they need to be somehow arranged and systematized. And the more books there are, the more complex the system of classification, ordering, and rubrication should be so that it is easier and less expensive to work with them.

It was precisely this ordering according to the laws of self-organization that arose in the sufficiently developed worldview of primitive people, initially in the form of myth and primitive forms of religion.

Mythology

The concept of "myth" comes from the Greek word mythos, which means narration, legend. If we do not go into the specifics of the modern mythologization of consciousness, but limit ourselves to a simple definition that conveys the original meaning of this word, then we can say that MYTH is an ordered, systematized worldview in a certain way, conveying the ideas of different peoples about the origin of the world, about natural phenomena, about fantastic creatures, about the deeds of gods and heroes.

The myth initially united the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, various elements of spiritual culture, art, social life and, thus, a certain orderliness was given to the worldview of primitive people, and their views on the world formed into a certain system. The most important forms of this systematization are: epics, fairy tales, legends, traditions, through which, first of all, myths are transmitted. This also ensures that the accumulated knowledge and experience is consolidated in subsequent generations.

The specificity of mythological thinking is that it is not just a narrative, a telling of some story, but empathy, the perception by the archaic consciousness of an oral “sacred” text as a certain reality that influences the course of events, a person and the world in which he lives. Myth, especially in the early stages of human history, performed the most important function of regulating the behavior and relationships of people, since it consolidated customs and expressed moral views and a person’s aesthetic attitude to reality. What is characteristic of mythology is that everything in it is fused, unified, inseparable; objects and natural phenomena live according to the same laws as man, have the same sensations, desires, suffering, etc.

Thus, a myth is not someone’s invention or a “relic of the past,” but a specific language with the help of which man, since ancient times, has described the world, generalizing, interpreting, classifying and bringing into a certain system his scattered and ever-increasing knowledge.

The main role in the myth is played by tradition, authoritative word, coming from the mouth father, leader, elder... The attitude towards such a narrative and its content is based on faith, on direct, emotional perception of reality. The mythological worldview is a holistic worldview in which there is no room for doubt.

Mythology(as a set of myths) is closely connected with the worldview of not only ancient people. And today, myths living in everyday consciousness, visibly or veiledly present in religion, philosophy, politics, art, remain (for some - to a greater extent, for others - to a lesser extent) an integral part of the worldview of any person, playing an active role in life and creativity of people. In the context of the rapidly growing informatization of society, myth through television, radio, periodicals, and modern election technologies is often used as a means of manipulating public consciousness, forming a predetermined public opinion, etc.

Religion

Another form of worldview that historically preceded philosophy is RELIGION. The word comes from the Latin religio, which means piety, piety, shrine. Like myth, religion also has at its core faith, feelings, emotions. And although its beginnings are found already at the earliest stages of the formation of the worldview of “homo sapiens,” i.e., about 40–60 thousand years ago, in general it emerges as an independent form of worldview somewhat later, when, thanks in part to myth, a person’s ability to think abstractly increases noticeably.

Religion can be defined as worldview and attitude, as well as corresponding behavior and specific actions of people, which are based on belief in the supernatural (gods, “higher mind”, some absolute and so on.).

Religion is a complex spiritual formation and socio-historical phenomenon, where faith invariably comes first and is always valued above knowledge!

Compared to myth, religion performs a more complex complex functions , among which:

ideological, answering the questions: how, when and why everything that exists appeared, and how the primary role of supernatural power was manifested in this;

communicative, providing a certain type of communication and interpersonal connections, promoting solidarity and integrity of society.

regulatory, establishing appropriate norms and rules governing people's behavior.

compensatory, compensating for the lack of information, attention, care, replacing the lack of meaning in life, perspective, etc., i.e., replenishing human needs that are unsatisfied in everyday life.

Religion arose as a natural phenomenon and has its deep roots, as if feeding a person’s faith in the supernatural. These roots lie primarily in human nature, in psychology people where, regardless of the level of development of intelligence and a person’s ability for critical thinking, there is always a desire and even a need not only to understand, realize, but also simply to believe.

Religious views receive significant support in the region knowledge . Here lie the so-called epistemological roots religion. From the point of view of rational knowledge, the world in its diversity appears to man as infinitely complex and is revealed to his knowledge only in fragments. For this reason, for him it is full of mysteries and miracles, which a person is not able to solve (perhaps yet?), just as he cannot, relying only on reason, either prove or disprove much of what is admitted on faith. As psychologists note, “an extremely difficult task makes you stupid,” a person feels weak, helpless in the face of insoluble problems and easily supplements, or even replaces, the arguments of reason with fiction, an appeal to the supernatural.

The reasons for religiosity are also found in social sphere , because inequality, poverty and lack of rights have always existed in society, which people, with all their desire and numerous attempts, have never been able to change or overcome. The feeling of injustice and imperfection of the earthly world gives rise to a feeling of hopelessness and despair, which easily develops into a belief in an afterlife, where, as any religion teaches, everything is arranged in the best possible way and everyone is rewarded according to their deeds. When faced with problems, difficulties and not finding support in real life, a person turns to the other world, pinning his hopes on supernatural forces. Having believed in them, he finds consolation and ultimately comes to humility and submission to fate.

Finally, a significant and consistent connection is found between religion and politics . Various political forces, as a rule, do not miss the opportunity to use religion for their own mercantile purposes and, thus, directly or indirectly support it, strengthen its role and influence in society.

The indicated reasons for the vitality of religion are so fundamental that even the impressive achievements of modern science have not shaken the foundations of religion, and the growth of scientific knowledge practically does not change the percentage of believers and non-believers, even among scientists. Thus, in 1916, when the rapidly developing natural science seemed to promise man unlimited possibilities in understanding the world, the American researcher James Luba published very interesting results of his research, according to which 40% of US scientists believed in God. The results of a new study conducted in the late 90s became an even greater sensation. American historians E. Larson and L. Whitham, who decided to find out how much the worldview of scientists has changed under the influence of the greatest discoveries and scientific achievements made in the 20th century. A survey they conducted among a thousand randomly selected humanities and natural scientists in the United States showed that the same 40% of scientists still believe in God and the afterlife. At the same time, the number of non-believers and agnostics (who deny the existence of God) has also changed little since then and today, as before, is approximately 45% and 15%, respectively.

The general conclusion about the vitality of the religious worldview, regardless of time, countries and continents, is confirmed by the results of a survey conducted by the Public Opinion Foundation in May 2000 in Russia. Among Russians, who in the 20th century lived for almost 80 years in conditions of militant atheism, which used all possible arguments to “debunk” religion, 2/3 of the country’s population consider themselves believers. 59% of respondents are indifferent to whether the Russian president believes in God, 31% believe that the president should be a believer, and only a small proportion of Russians (6%) believe that the head of the Russian state should be an atheist.

_domain_ Secrets of magic.

Philosophy (Buchilo N.F.). History and philosophy of science The concept of culture in philosophy